By Leslie Doyle | 04/01/2025
The global economy relies on the safe passage of people and goods across oceans. In fact, nearly 80% of worldwide trade is conducted at sea, according to the United Nations Trade and Development.
Historically, however, seafaring has been a dangerous endeavor. Sadly, violence on the high seas is quite real, even today.
“The right of a nation to have its vessels navigate freely is an important part of international commerce,” says Dr. Eduardo Martinez, Esq., a retired U.S. Navy Captain and a part-time instructor in the School of Security and Global Studies at American Military University. “You can track a vessel, but you cannot defend it from afar.
“Currently, pirates still attempt to attack ships, but rogue countries are firing on ships that transit the key international waterways in the Middle East. In fact, U.S. Navy vessels have been tasked with providing support to any ship that might be under attack from long-range missiles.”
Current Maritime and Port Facility Security Challenges
Piracy, however, is just one problem that occurs at sea. In recent years, the U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration has issued security threat advisories about:
- Piracy, armed robbery, and kidnapping risks to vessels operating in the Gulf of Guinea
- Risks of potential terrorist attacks against commercial vessels operating near coastal Libya
- Vulnerabilities of maritime computer equipment to hackers
In 2019, the United Nations Office of Drug and Crime also raised the alarm about maritime security threats, including:
- Armed robbery
- Drug smuggling
- Illegal marine pollution
- Kidnapping
- Terrorist attacks
Additionally, the U.S. Coast Guard and other government agencies regularly face security challenges, such as criminal organizations trafficking people and property. Maritime security issues include everything from violent attacks to the smuggling of drugs, inadvertent oil spills, and illegal fishing.
Also, maritime security threats can involve cyberattacks. Global positioning systems (GPS) and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) provide real-time information for guiding container ships and large seafaring structures.
However, these computer systems are vulnerable to attacks by hackers. Recently, successful GPS/GNSS attacks have been leveled against boats and ships. In one case, North Korea disrupted regional shipping and air corridors by interfering with the navigation systems of South Korean planes and ships.
“In recent years, incidences of attacks emanating from Europe, China, and Russia have increased,” says Dr. Martinez. “These incidents result in jamming of navigation signals and presenting false images that manifest in erroneous accounts of an actual location.”
Port Security Vulnerabilities
According to the American Association of Port Authorities, more than $2.1 trillion in U.S. goods pass through ports each year. As the entry point of products entering and leaving the country through an international ship, ports are vulnerable to a range of attacks.
Ports are sprawling, high-traffic areas and are difficult to monitor. The Port of Los Angeles, for example, spans more than 7,500 acres and employs roughly 1,000 people.
Years ago, port authorities focused their security measures on access control to prevent thefts at ports. However, the 9/11 attack led to fears that ports could be used for weapons smuggling or a terrorist attack.
In 2002, Congress passed the Maritime Transportation Security Act to tighten homeland security. As part of the Maritime Transportation Security Act, ship operators and port authorities are required to:
- Conduct vulnerability assessments
- Deploy security plans to screen passengers, vehicles, and cargo
- Create restricted areas
- Install access control and surveillance equipment
- Establish worker identification credentials for anyone with secure access to ports
However, troubling attacks have continued at different ports:
- In 2017, Akayed Ullah detonated an explosive device at the New York Port Authority terminal in Manhattan, injuring several people. He admitted to the attack and said he did it on behalf of the terrorist group Islamic State of Syria and Lebanon.
- In 2021, the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S., the Colonial Pipeline, was the victim of a ransomware attack at the hands of Russian hackers. The Colonial Pipeline’s owners were forced to pay $4.4 million to adversaries to restart operations, which included the Port of New York and New Jersey.
- In 2023, the Port of Los Angeles was hit with more than 60 million cyberattacks.
US Maritime Security Organizations
Identifying and apprehending criminals in the maritime domain is daunting. The U.S. Coast Guard alone is responsible for patrolling more than 95,000 miles of coastline as well as territory extending 200 miles from shore.
The Coast Guard uses aircraft, human personnel, and a range of technologies to monitor the U.S. coastline as well as international waters. This surveillance is part of a concerted effort to detect and prevent criminal activities, including maritime piracy, cargo theft, and illegal marine pollution.
In addition to the Coast Guard, there are other government agencies focused on protecting maritime trade through port and marine security strategies. The Department of Transportation’s Office of Maritime Security develops and implements maritime security policies and trains national security professionals about piracy, terrorism, and cyberattacks. This agency also leads responses to maritime security occurrences.
However, truly enhancing maritime security also requires international cooperation. For example, military efforts and alliances are working to combat piracy and armed robbery on a global level. “Somalia was a leading attacker of commercial ships and was repelled by several naval task forces,” explains Dr. Martinez.
The International Maritime Organization
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a maritime security organization committed to “making trade and travel by sea as safe and secure as possible.” This organization's efforts include developing the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, which helps to ensure that ships and ports of IMO member states meet high security standards.
As part of the ISPS code, there are three primary levels of security for protecting ships and ports:
- Level 1: This level is the standard level for providing physical security, surveillance, incident reports, and access control.
- Level 2: This level involves a heightened level of security that requires more stringent access control, increased vigilance, some movement restrictions, and more frequent patrols.
- Level 3: This level of security is used when there is evidence of probable or imminent threats, such as terrorist threats. When Level 3 goes into effect, maritime and port security safeguards require additional protective measures to be put in place for a specific period of time.
Additional Maritime and Port Security Measures
Initiatives such as the Maritime and Port Security Program also look to strengthen security at sea and in ports among Organization of American States (OAS) members by:
- Promoting the exchange of information and experiences
- Educating member states about the ISPS Code and the maritime domain
- Advising authorities of member states about maritime security plans and policies
- Strengthening capacities in protecting ports, ships, and other assets
In addition to providing safety, the International Maritime Organization aims to prevent air and water pollution from ships. More than 174 member states have adopted IMO protocols for maritime safety, including protection from environmental pollutants.
In addition to work by the maritime industry and homeland security agencies, the nonprofit International Maritime Bureau pursues various ways to enhance maritime security. It also works to prevent maritime trade crimes such as fraud and malpractice.
Maritime Security and Port Security Strategies
Maritime security involves more than protecting shipping routes. It encompasses four areas:
- Safety
- Border protection
- Crime prevention
- Environmental protection
To support these areas of maritime security, international maritime organizations and other agencies work with shipping companies to ensure seamless maritime traffic and port operations. This work involves using security measures in different areas.
Access Control
To main port facility security, all ports require perimeter security as well as comprehensive checks of any vehicles and vessels entering or exiting the premises. Port security employees should also have maritime security training to ensure a high degree of vigilance and keep unauthorized vehicles out of port facilities.
Anti-Piracy Measures
Preventing maritime piracy involves using multiple types of security to repel pirates. This security may involve drone surveillance, physical obstacles to prevent pirates from boarding a vessel, and anti-piracy devices such as water cannons and long-range acoustic devices. Some vessels may also have silent alarm systems that can be triggered in case of a violent attack.
Automatic Identification Systems
Automatic identification systems help the U.S. Coast Guard stay attuned to what’s happening in the maritime domain. They automatically transmit a ship's location along with other identifying information. These systems can help to identify and stop crimes at sea.
Maritime Surveillance
Security professionals rely on maritime surveillance technologies such as high-range sonar and radar to monitor maritime trade. These autonomous systems make it easier to patrol vast ocean spaces and identify any threats to a vessel’s security, especially to an international ship.
Security Guards
The maritime industry commonly uses security guards who are trained to combat piracy. These security guards are particularly useful in regions such as the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, where there are higher security risks.
Risk Management Consultants
Maritime facilities and related organizations often invest in risk management consultants. These consultants can perform voyage and ship security assessments to lessen the risk of piracy.
Maritime and Port Cybersecurity
Maritime transportation system operators use various types of cybersecurity to make their operations more efficient and safer. The Global Maritime Transportation System, for example, is a network of routes that support the maritime supply chain.
Automated technologies now control mission-critical activities such as:
- Cargo screening
- Vessel navigation
- Ballast management
- Emergency response
As the maritime industry has become increasingly reliant on technology to automate many functions, cybersecurity is a growing concern, especially with emerging cyber threats. Cyber criminals can hack into the automated systems that control maritime vessels and ports to take control of vessels or other equipment.
Maritime Cybersecurity Risks
The most concerning cyber risks in maritime security include:
- Harm to people and cargo
- Disruption of vessels or port operations
- Loss of confidential information
- Economic losses due to maritime crime
The Crowdstrike outage in July 2024 is just one example. A software glitch took down operations at ports around the world, resulting in temporary shutdowns that affected the global supply chain.
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued an alert about heightened cybersecurity risks, particularly from U.S. adversaries such as China, Iran, North Korea, and Russia, as well as numerous criminal organizations. Based on these cyber risks, the GAO recommends that the Coast Guard update its records to improve access to cyber deficiency data, align cybersecurity strategies nationally, and resolve employee knowledge gaps.
“The U.S. needs an aggressive review and enhancement of cyber security to address threats to GPS/GNSS systems,” says Dr. Martinez.
The Department of Homeland Security’s Maritime Trade and Port Cybersecurity team also undertook an extensive survey of maritime cybersecurity. They found that U.S. ports are increasingly becoming targets of cyberattacks and that ports are vulnerable to attack from enemy states.
With cyber risks on the rise, the maritime industry is also investing in maritime security technologies that can uncover and prevent online vulnerabilities. These cybersecurity tools are designed to prevent hacking, malware, and unauthorized user access.
Common maritime cybersecurity tools include:
- Endpoint detection
- Data encryption
- Intrusion detection
- Firewalls
- Network segmentation
- Penetration testing tools
- Patch management
Maritime Security Innovations
According to scholar Shivam Pandey, there are many exciting solutions being developed to upgrade maritime security, including:
- Underwater wireless optical communication systems – to be used for port security and environmental monitoring
- Neurotechnology – to augment human surveillance and identify threatening activities
- Enhanced vessel tracking systems – to provide real-time monitoring
- Blockchain technology – to boost the accountability and transparency of maritime-related transactions and reduce smuggling, fraud, and related crimes
- Artificial intelligence – to analyze vast amounts of data and detect anomalies in the maritime world, enabling the early detection of security issues
- Quantum computing applications – to aid the maritime industry in encrypting its data to protect critical operations.
Maritime Laws
Since oceans are considered international waters, there is no one nation that has control over any of them. Maritime law addresses the obligations of nations and the international laws that are in place to bring security to our oceans.
When there are disputes in the maritime industry, maritime law may serve as a guide to the resolution of problems. Admiralty courts work to adjudicate these laws. Often, there are connections between maritime law and international law when addressing issues between nations that share a waterway.
Recent US Security Efforts and Legislative Action
The Biden administration signed an executive order in 2024, giving the Coast Guard greater authority to respond to malicious actors targeting the maritime sector. The order granted the Coast Guard the authority to:
- Ensure maritime vessels and ports can enact security measures to safeguard against cyber risks
- Require the reporting of any cyber security incident involving a Coast Guard or FBI vessel, harbor, port, or facility
- Take control of vessels that present a known or suspected cyber threat to U.S. maritime infrastructure
The following week, the Subcommittee on Transportation and Maritime Security held a hearing about port cybersecurity. Committee Chairman Carlos Gimenez applauded the executive order but stated that more needed to be done to protect against industrial and economic espionage in port facilities and on ships. He highlighted supply chain vulnerabilities that could occur because most ship-to-shore cranes are made and operated by China.
To enhance maritime security in Southeast Asia, the Department of Defense created an alliance between the maritime industry and the federal government to identify commercially available solutions. The investment in maritime domain awareness and defense is intended to ensure that Southeast Asian allies and partners have cost-effective ways to protect maritime interests.
Human Trafficking Concerns
Many in the shipping industry are raising awareness about human trafficking at sea. There are reports of thousands of people being subjected to forced labor, dangerous living conditions, and abuse as trafficking victims may be forced to work on shipping or fishing vessels.
Maritime Security Strategies to Combat Human Trafficking
The Department of Homeland Security and other security agencies are fighting human trafficking at sea. Detecting human trafficking is difficult, however, due to the vast geographic areas where these crimes occur.
Also, this work is complicated by convoluted jurisdictional and legal issues. For example, the U.S. government has little authority over foreign vessels. Additionally, the U.S. doesn’t require people in the maritime industry to eliminate forced labor.
In 2021, Congress directed the Department of Justice to assemble a working group to assess the extent of the problem and recommend actions to address it. The working group issued numerous recommendations, including:
- Extension of special maritime and territorial jurisdiction for the crime of forced labor
- Extension of worker protections for workers on U.S. fishing vessels
- Appropriation of funds sufficient for agencies to accomplish new mandates
- Target organizations connected to human trafficking through sanctions and other methods of discouraging trafficking
- Promote foreign governments’ improved anti-trafficking efforts in a range of areas and foreign governments’ regulatory control of their flagged vessels
Human Smuggling on Our Seas and Oceans
Human trafficking is different from human smuggling. Human smuggling involves aiding individuals to enter a country illegally and is typically done for financial gain.
Criminal organizations earn billions of dollars through illegal immigration. They take advantage of weak international laws to facilitate illegal migration, which make human smuggling a low-risk, high-reward activity.
People who choose to work with smugglers may be leaving desperate situations. They may be exploited or abused while they’re in the hands of smugglers or be transported in unsafe conditions.
Maritime Security Strategies to Fight Human Smuggling
The International Police (INTERPOL) supports law enforcement agencies in detecting and investigating these human smuggling and human trafficking. Their work includes helping member countries break up criminal networks that participate in human trafficking and smuggling. INTERPOL has two expert groups that share best practices with government agencies about safeguarding people from exploitation.
The U.S. Department of Transportation has also created the Transportation Leaders Against Human Trafficking initiative. This program brings together commercial shipping enterprises, human security experts, and other maritime environment stakeholders for awareness and training.
Environmental Risks
The maritime environment is threatened by various types of marine pollution, including:
- Vessel emissions
- Wastewater discharges
- Illegal marine pollution
- Oil and chemical spills
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) uses various measures to mitigate these issues. However, additional safeguards are needed to protect against ship strikes, air pollution, and garbage released at sea.
Maritime Treaties
Over the years, there have been many domestic and international laws enacted to improve maritime and port security. There have also been multiple treaties, including:
- The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention
- The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (the SUA Convention)
- The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
The SOLAS Convention
This SOLAS Convention is an international treaty that addresses the safety of merchant ships and was initially adopted in 1914 in response to the sinking of the Titanic. In 1974, SOLAS was amended to include the ISPS Code, which includes mandatory and voluntary security-related guidelines for governments, port authorities, and shipping companies to follow.
The latest version was updated in 2001 after the September 11 attacks. The new requirements are designed to protect international maritime transport from acts of terrorism.
The SUA Convention
In the wake of reports of shipping crews being kidnapped in the 1980s, the IMO created a resolution to help safeguard people on vessels. The new resolution, known as the SUA Convention, was to prevent “unlawful acts which threaten the safety of ships and the security of their passengers and crew.” The following year, the Maritime Safety Committee created additional protection measures.
In 1988, the International Conference on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation created further international laws and provisions. This legislation was related to:
- The seizure of ships by force
- Acts of violence against passengers and crews on board
- The placement of devices intended to damage or destroy ships
The SUA Convention requires contracting governments to prosecute or extradite criminals who violate these provisions. Over the years, the SUA Convention has amended its treaty to further clarify international laws about extradition and other maritime and port security concerns.
MARPOL
MARPOL is an international convention that addresses keeping marine environments safe from accidental acts of polluting. Adopted by the IMO in 1973, it also includes provisions to reduce pollution from routine operations.
The IMO has updated the regulations over the years for additional protection against pollution. For example, a 1983 amendment requires new oil tankers to have double hulls and for existing tankers to be retrofitted with double hulls.
Maritime and Port Security Relies on Constant Vigilance
Ultimately, the security of ships, boats, and ports depends upon constant vigilance throughout the global maritime transportation system. As technology continues to improve, it can make maritime trade more efficient and safer for everyone in the future.
Homeland Security Degrees at American Military University
For adult learners interested in learning about homeland security, critical infrastructure sectors, and maritime and port security, American Military University (AMU) offers several degrees:
- An online Bachelor of Arts in Homeland Security
- An online Master of Arts in Homeland Security
- An online Master of Arts in Emergency and Disaster Management and Homeland Security (a dual degree)
Taught by expert instructors, courses in these programs feature topics such as border and coastal security, critical infrastructure protection, and intelligence and homeland security. Other courses include domestic terrorism and extremist groups, homeland security and defense, and mass casualty incident management.
Interested in learning more about these degrees? Visit AMU’s homeland security program page.